summary #1 ( non-fiction book)

A.Novogradec and S.Harris Ali (2004) in chapter two, “ Incorporating The Environmental Context In The Study Of Cancer” (Pp. 11-38), in “ Cancer as an Environmental Disease”(P.Nicolopoulou et al.,2004), indicated the effect of environment on cancer, problems with methods of studies, and the effects “of risk assessment for cancer policy and intervention”(Pp.27-30).
The writers claimed that the increase of incident of cancer happened not only "by genetic changes" but also by environmental factors. The authors claimed that "environmental carcinogens" affected on various species of animals and humans such as growing the number of "cancer deaths amongst belugea whales"(p.14). In addition, A.Novogradec and S.Harris Ali(2004) argued about the increase of cancer among immigrant, for example, the increase of breast cancer among Japanese women in Louse Angeles was equal non-immigrants. Furthermore, in the writers' opinion, studying "childhood cancer"(P.17) assumed the increase of some cancers such as brain cancer and leukemia among children in rich countries, for instance, the increase of "childhood cancer"(P.17) in U.S was 1% each year. Also, A.Novogradec and S.Harris Ali (2004) assumed that the study of identical twins in different environment situation showed the role of environment on cancer.

In addition, from point of writers' view, there were several problems with methods of studying cancer. The writers noted that one of those problems is about "randomized clinical trials"(P.21) which is morally unacceptable. Furthermore, the authors claimed that ecological "exposure measurements"(P.23) were incomplete, and these measurements misled researchers.Moreover, according to the authors, "cancer clusters"(P.24) is another problem in cancer studies. A.Novogradec and S. Harris Ali(2004) explained that identifying, analyzing and interpreting cancer clusters is a complicated issue, and the rate of these cancers grew due to the spread of "risk factors" (P.24). In the last part of their chapter, A.Novograde and S. Harris Ali (2004) discussed the effects of "risk assessment" (P.27) on governments to involve and to make decision to decrease the rate of cancers that occur by environmental carcinogens; however, the writers believed that still there are several problems with cancer studies such as facing a variety of exposures that led to various unnecessary levels.

At the end of their chapter, A.Novogradec and S.Harris Ali (2004) concluded that the rate of cancer was increasing because of environmental carcinogens, and this rising make some governors to think about reducing "public exposure"(P.30).